The World of Islam
The Umayyad dynasty of caliphs had established Damascus as the center of an Islamic
empire created by Arab expansion in the seventh and eighth centuries. But Umayyad rule
created resentment, and the Umayyads also helped bring about their own end by their
corrupt behavior. One caliph, for example, supposedly swam in a pool of wine and drank
enough of it to lower the wine level considerably. Finally, in 750, Abu ai-Abbas, a
descendant of the uncle of Muhammad, brought an end to the Umayyad dynasty and
established the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258.
The Abbasid rulers brought much change to the world of Islam. They tried to break down
the distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims. All Muslims, regardless of their
ethnic background, could now hold both civil and military offices. This helped to open
Islamic life to the influences of the conquered civilizations. Many Arabs now began to
intermarry with their conquered peoples.
In 762, the Abbasids built a new capital city, Baghdad, on the Tigris River far to the
east of Damascus. The
new capital was well placed. It took advantage of river traffic to the Persian Gulf and
at the same time was located on the caravan route from the Mediterranean to central
Asia. The move eastward allowed Persian influence to come_ the fore, encouraging a new
cultural orientation. Under tIC Abbasids, judges, merchants, and government officiaW
rather than warriors, were viewed as the ideal citizens.
The new Abbasid dynasty experienced a period_ splendid rule well into the ninth century.
Best known_ the caliphs of the time was Harun ai-Rashid (786-8001 whose reign is often
described as the golden age of,_ Abbasid caliphate. His son al-Ma'mun (813-833) wasl
great patron of learning. He founded an astronomic( observatory and created a foundation
for translatingclail sical Greek works. This was also a period of growinge_ nomic
prosperity. After all, the Arabs had conquered mar of the richest provinces of the old
Roman Empire, andtl'!1 now controlled the trade routes to the east. Bagha_ became the
center of an enormous trade empire _ extended into Europe, Asia, and Africa, greatly
addini_ the wealth of the Islamic world.
Despite the prosperity, all was not quite well in _ empire of the Abbasids. There was
much fighting overlll
The Umayyad dynasty of caliphs had established Damascus as the center of an Islamic
empire created by Arab expansion in the seventh and eighth centuries. But Umayyad rule
created resentment, and the Umayyads also helped bring about their own end by their
corrupt behavior. One caliph, for example, supposedly swam in a pool of wine and drank
enough of it to lower the wine level considerably. Finally, in 750, Abu ai-Abbas, a
descendant of the uncle of Muhammad, brought an end to the Umayyad dynasty and
established the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258.
The Abbasid rulers brought much change to the world of Islam. They tried to break down
the distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims. All Muslims, regardless of their
ethnic background, could now hold both civil and military offices. This helped to open
Islamic life to the influences of the conquered civilizations. Many Arabs now began to
intermarry with their conquered peoples.
In 762, the Abbasids built a new capital city, Baghdad, on the Tigris River far to the
east of Damascus. The
new capital was well placed. It took advantage of river traffic to the Persian Gulf and
at the same time was located on the caravan route from the Mediterranean to central
Asia. The move eastward allowed Persian influence to come_ the fore, encouraging a new
cultural orientation. Under tIC Abbasids, judges, merchants, and government officiaW
rather than warriors, were viewed as the ideal citizens.
The new Abbasid dynasty experienced a period_ splendid rule well into the ninth century.
Best known_ the caliphs of the time was Harun ai-Rashid (786-8001 whose reign is often
described as the golden age of,_ Abbasid caliphate. His son al-Ma'mun (813-833) wasl
great patron of learning. He founded an astronomic( observatory and created a foundation
for translatingclail sical Greek works. This was also a period of growinge_ nomic
prosperity. After all, the Arabs had conquered mar of the richest provinces of the old
Roman Empire, andtl'!1 now controlled the trade routes to the east. Bagha_ became the
center of an enormous trade empire _ extended into Europe, Asia, and Africa, greatly
addini_ the wealth of the Islamic world.
Despite the prosperity, all was not quite well in _ empire of the Abbasids. There was
much fighting overlll
The Expansion of Islam
_ death of Muhammad presented his followers with a _mma. Although Muhammad had not claimed to be ine, Muslims saw no separation between
religious and [tical authority. Submission to the will of Allah was the 1e thing as submission to his Prophet Muhammad. :ording to the
Quran: "Whoever obeys the messenger _ys Allah." But Muhammad had never named a sucsor, and although he had several daughters, he left no
s. In a male-oriented society, who would lead the comnity of the faithful? Shortly after Muhammad's death, umber of his closest followers
selected Abu Bakr, a Ilthy merchant who was Muhammad's father-in-law, as lph, or temporal leader, of the Islamic community.
Muhammad and the early caliphs who succeeded 1 took up the Arab tribal custom of making raids against :'s enemies. The Quran called this
activity "striving in
way of the Lord," or a jihad. Although misleadingly led a Holy War, the jihad grew out of the tradition of lal raids, which were
permitted as a way to channel the rlike energies of the Bedouin tribes. Jihads were not carlout to convert others because conversion to
Islam was -ely voluntary. Those who did not convert were required y to submit to Muslim rule and pay taxes.
Once the Arabs had become unified under Abu Bakr, y began to direct the energy they had once expended linst each other outward against
neighboring peoples. _ Byzantines and the Persians were the first to feel the _ngth of the newly united Arabs. At Yarmuk in 636,Muslims
defeated the Byzantine army, and by 640 they:l taken possession of the province of Syria. To the east, Arabs defeated the Persian forces
in 637 and then went to conquer the entire Persian Empire by 650. In the meantime, by 642 Egypt and other areas of northern Africa had
been added to the new Muslim empire. Led by a series of brilliant generals, the Arabs had put together a large and highly motivated army,
whose valor was enhanced by the belief that Muslim warriors were guaranteed a place in paradise if they died in battle.
Early caliphs, ruling from Medina, organized their newly conquered territories into taxpaying provinces. By the mid-seventh century,
problems arose again over the succession to the Prophet until AIL ¥uhammad's sonin-law, was assassinated and the general Muawiyah, the
governor of Syria and one of Ali's chief rivals, became caliph in 661. Muawiyah was known for one outstanding virtue; he used force only
when necessary. As he said, '_r. !l_\L_r JJjie,nY.,,'_Wmp,wI'L£;>p,l1}v,whjJ\w}JI.m; ,RS;'\r,l1}\l,whjJ' when my tongue will do."l?
Muawiyah moved quickly to
make the caliphate hereditary in his own family, thus establishing the Umayyad dynasty. As one of their first actions, the Umayyads moved
the capital of the Muslim empire from Medina to Damascus in Syria. This internal dissension over the caliphate created a split in Islam
between the Shi'ites, or those who accepted only the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, as the true rulers, and the Sunnites, who
claimed that the descendants of the Umayyads were the true caliphs. This seventh-century split in Islam has lasted until tn_ present day.
The internal dissension did not stop the expansio_ of Islam, however. At the beginning of the eighth centu_1 new attacks were made at
both the western and easterrj ends of the Mediterranean world. After sweeping acro_ North Africa, the Muslims crossed the Strait of
Gibrallil and moved into Spain around 710. The Visigothic kin_ dom collapsed, and by 725, most of Spain had becomel! Muslim state with
its center at Cordoba. In 732, a Musli_ army, making a foray into southern France, was defeat_ at the Battle of Tours near Poitiers.
Muslim expansioni_ Europe came to a halt.
Meanwhile, in 717, another Muslim force na! ,Jan R5 kf'-.r1d'1 rci:V'b"lla'ma;_ W'r_W'_'i:_1 nt1 R!p1_vVdtht,1e 7lJr of destroying the
Byzantine Empire. In the spring of71_
the Byzantines destroyed the Muslim fleet and saved_ Byzantine Empire and indirectly Christian Europe, sin_ the fall of Constantinople
would no doubt have open_ the door to Muslim invasion of eastern Europe. T_ Byzantine Empire and Islam now established an unea_ frontier
in southern Asia Minor.
The Arab advance had finally come to an end, D_ not before the southern and eastern Mediterranean part of the old Roman Empire had been
conquered.
_ death of Muhammad presented his followers with a _mma. Although Muhammad had not claimed to be ine, Muslims saw no separation between
religious and [tical authority. Submission to the will of Allah was the 1e thing as submission to his Prophet Muhammad. :ording to the
Quran: "Whoever obeys the messenger _ys Allah." But Muhammad had never named a sucsor, and although he had several daughters, he left no
s. In a male-oriented society, who would lead the comnity of the faithful? Shortly after Muhammad's death, umber of his closest followers
selected Abu Bakr, a Ilthy merchant who was Muhammad's father-in-law, as lph, or temporal leader, of the Islamic community.
Muhammad and the early caliphs who succeeded 1 took up the Arab tribal custom of making raids against :'s enemies. The Quran called this
activity "striving in
way of the Lord," or a jihad. Although misleadingly led a Holy War, the jihad grew out of the tradition of lal raids, which were
permitted as a way to channel the rlike energies of the Bedouin tribes. Jihads were not carlout to convert others because conversion to
Islam was -ely voluntary. Those who did not convert were required y to submit to Muslim rule and pay taxes.
Once the Arabs had become unified under Abu Bakr, y began to direct the energy they had once expended linst each other outward against
neighboring peoples. _ Byzantines and the Persians were the first to feel the _ngth of the newly united Arabs. At Yarmuk in 636,Muslims
defeated the Byzantine army, and by 640 they:l taken possession of the province of Syria. To the east, Arabs defeated the Persian forces
in 637 and then went to conquer the entire Persian Empire by 650. In the meantime, by 642 Egypt and other areas of northern Africa had
been added to the new Muslim empire. Led by a series of brilliant generals, the Arabs had put together a large and highly motivated army,
whose valor was enhanced by the belief that Muslim warriors were guaranteed a place in paradise if they died in battle.
Early caliphs, ruling from Medina, organized their newly conquered territories into taxpaying provinces. By the mid-seventh century,
problems arose again over the succession to the Prophet until AIL ¥uhammad's sonin-law, was assassinated and the general Muawiyah, the
governor of Syria and one of Ali's chief rivals, became caliph in 661. Muawiyah was known for one outstanding virtue; he used force only
when necessary. As he said, '_r. !l_\L_r JJjie,nY.,,'_Wmp,wI'L£;>p,l1}v,whjJ\w}JI.m; ,RS;'\r,l1}\l,whjJ' when my tongue will do."l?
Muawiyah moved quickly to
make the caliphate hereditary in his own family, thus establishing the Umayyad dynasty. As one of their first actions, the Umayyads moved
the capital of the Muslim empire from Medina to Damascus in Syria. This internal dissension over the caliphate created a split in Islam
between the Shi'ites, or those who accepted only the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, as the true rulers, and the Sunnites, who
claimed that the descendants of the Umayyads were the true caliphs. This seventh-century split in Islam has lasted until tn_ present day.
The internal dissension did not stop the expansio_ of Islam, however. At the beginning of the eighth centu_1 new attacks were made at
both the western and easterrj ends of the Mediterranean world. After sweeping acro_ North Africa, the Muslims crossed the Strait of
Gibrallil and moved into Spain around 710. The Visigothic kin_ dom collapsed, and by 725, most of Spain had becomel! Muslim state with
its center at Cordoba. In 732, a Musli_ army, making a foray into southern France, was defeat_ at the Battle of Tours near Poitiers.
Muslim expansioni_ Europe came to a halt.
Meanwhile, in 717, another Muslim force na! ,Jan R5 kf'-.r1d'1 rci:V'b"lla'ma;_ W'r_W'_'i:_1 nt1 R!p1_vVdtht,1e 7lJr of destroying the
Byzantine Empire. In the spring of71_
the Byzantines destroyed the Muslim fleet and saved_ Byzantine Empire and indirectly Christian Europe, sin_ the fall of Constantinople
would no doubt have open_ the door to Muslim invasion of eastern Europe. T_ Byzantine Empire and Islam now established an unea_ frontier
in southern Asia Minor.
The Arab advance had finally come to an end, D_ not before the southern and eastern Mediterranean part of the old Roman Empire had been
conquered.
